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Price controls are governmental restrictions on the prices that can be charged for goods and services in a market. The intent behind implementing such controls can stem from the desire to maintain affordability of staple foods and goods, to prevent price gouging during shortages, and to slow inflation, or, alternatively, to insure a minimum income for providers of certain goods or a minimum wage. There are two primary forms of price control, a price ceiling, the maximum price that can be charged, and a price floor, the minimum price that can be charged.
Historically, price controls have often been imposed as part of a larger incomes policy package also employing wage controls and other regulatory elements.
Although price controls are sometimes used by governments, economists usually agree that price controls don't accomplish what they are intended to do and are generally to be avoided.[1]
WWI poster of the United States Food Administration
WWII poster about US price controls
An early example of this type of policy is attested to in the Old Testament, where the Israelites were instructed not to charge interest on other Israelites.[1]
The Roman Emperor Diocletian tried to set maximum prices for all commodities in the end of the 3rd century CE, but with little success.
Price controls have also been used in modern times for such things as rent control and usury laws.[1]
During World War I, the United States Food Administration enforced price controls on food.[2][3][4][5] Price controls were also imposed in the US and Nazi Germany during WWII.[6][7]
States have sometimes chosen to implement their own control policies. California controls the prices of electricity within the state, which economist Thomas Sowell blames for the occasional electricity shortages the state experiences.[8] Sowell said of California's controls in 2001: "Since the utility companies have been paying more for electricity than they were allowed to charge their customers, they were operating in the red and the financial markets are downgrading their bonds."[8] California's price-setting board has agreed to raise rates, but not as much as the companies were paying on the wholesale market for their electricity.[9] Economist Lawrence Makovich contended, "We've already seen in California that price caps on retail rates increased demand and made the shortage worse and price caps also forced the largest utility, Pacific Gas and Electric, into bankruptcy in four months."[10] While some charged that electricity providers had in past years charged above-market rates,[10] in 2002 the San Francisco Chronicle reported that before the blackouts, many energy providers left the state because they could make a greater profit in other Western states.[11] The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission stepped in and set price caps for each megawatt of power bought, after lifting the caps to avoid rolling blackouts six months previously.[11]
The state of Hawaii briefly introduced a cap on the wholesale price of gasoline in an effort to fight "price gouging" in that state in 2005. Because it was widely seen as too soft and ineffective, it was repealed shortly thereafter.
A classic example of how price controls cause shortages was during the Arab oil embargo between October 19, 1973 and March 17, 1974. Long lines of cars and trucks quickly appeared at retail gas stations in the U.S. and some stations closed because of a shortage of fuel at the low price set by the U.S. Cost of Living Council. The fixed price was below what the market would otherwise bear and, as a result, the inventory disappeared. It made no difference whether prices were voluntarily or involuntarily posted below the market clearing price. Scarcity resulted in either case. Price controls fail to achieve their proximate aim, which is to reduce prices paid by retail consumers, but such controls do manage to reduce supply.[14][15]
Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said "We economists don't know much, but we do know how to create a shortage. If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes, for example, just pass a law that retailers can't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound. Instantly you'll have a tomato shortage. It's the same with oil or gas."[16]
U.S. President Richard Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury, George Shultz, enacting Nixon's "New Economic Policy," lifted price controls that had begun in 1971. This lifting of price controls resulted in a rapid increase in prices. Price freezes were re-established five months later.[17]
Historically, price controls have often been imposed as part of a larger incomes policy package also employing wage controls and other regulatory elements.
Although price controls are sometimes used by governments, economists usually agree that price controls don't accomplish what they are intended to do and are generally to be avoided.[1]
Contents
[hide]Historical examples[edit]
The Roman Emperor Diocletian tried to set maximum prices for all commodities in the end of the 3rd century CE, but with little success.
Price controls have also been used in modern times for such things as rent control and usury laws.[1]
During World War I, the United States Food Administration enforced price controls on food.[2][3][4][5] Price controls were also imposed in the US and Nazi Germany during WWII.[6][7]
States have sometimes chosen to implement their own control policies. California controls the prices of electricity within the state, which economist Thomas Sowell blames for the occasional electricity shortages the state experiences.[8] Sowell said of California's controls in 2001: "Since the utility companies have been paying more for electricity than they were allowed to charge their customers, they were operating in the red and the financial markets are downgrading their bonds."[8] California's price-setting board has agreed to raise rates, but not as much as the companies were paying on the wholesale market for their electricity.[9] Economist Lawrence Makovich contended, "We've already seen in California that price caps on retail rates increased demand and made the shortage worse and price caps also forced the largest utility, Pacific Gas and Electric, into bankruptcy in four months."[10] While some charged that electricity providers had in past years charged above-market rates,[10] in 2002 the San Francisco Chronicle reported that before the blackouts, many energy providers left the state because they could make a greater profit in other Western states.[11] The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission stepped in and set price caps for each megawatt of power bought, after lifting the caps to avoid rolling blackouts six months previously.[11]
The state of Hawaii briefly introduced a cap on the wholesale price of gasoline in an effort to fight "price gouging" in that state in 2005. Because it was widely seen as too soft and ineffective, it was repealed shortly thereafter.
Criticisms[edit]
The primary criticism leveled against price controls is that by keeping prices artificially low, demand is increased to the point where supply can not keep up, leading to shortages in the price-controlled product.[12] For example, Lactantius wrote that Diocletian "by various taxes he had made all things exceedingly expensive, attempted by a law to limit their prices. Then much blood [of merchants] was shed for trifles, men were afraid to offer anything for sale, and the scarcity became more excessive and grievous than ever. Until, in the end, the [price limit] law, after having proved destructive to many people, was from mere necessity abolished."[13] As with Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices, shortages lead to black markets where prices for the same good exceed those of an uncontrolled market.[12] Furthermore, once controls are removed, prices will immediately increase, which can temporarily shock the economic system.[12]A classic example of how price controls cause shortages was during the Arab oil embargo between October 19, 1973 and March 17, 1974. Long lines of cars and trucks quickly appeared at retail gas stations in the U.S. and some stations closed because of a shortage of fuel at the low price set by the U.S. Cost of Living Council. The fixed price was below what the market would otherwise bear and, as a result, the inventory disappeared. It made no difference whether prices were voluntarily or involuntarily posted below the market clearing price. Scarcity resulted in either case. Price controls fail to achieve their proximate aim, which is to reduce prices paid by retail consumers, but such controls do manage to reduce supply.[14][15]
Nobel prize winner Milton Friedman said "We economists don't know much, but we do know how to create a shortage. If you want to create a shortage of tomatoes, for example, just pass a law that retailers can't sell tomatoes for more than two cents per pound. Instantly you'll have a tomato shortage. It's the same with oil or gas."[16]
U.S. President Richard Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury, George Shultz, enacting Nixon's "New Economic Policy," lifted price controls that had begun in 1971. This lifting of price controls resulted in a rapid increase in prices. Price freezes were re-established five months later.[17]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Rockoff, Hugh (2008). "Price Controls". In David R. Henderson (ed.). The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.
- Jump up ^ "File: "Prices charged in this store will not exceed those indicated in the most recent list of Fair Prices applicable to this – NARA – 512556.jpg – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
- Jump up ^ "File: "Closed. Public Notice. For Violation of the rules of the United States Food Administration This Place is Closed days... – NARA – 512564.tif – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
- Jump up ^ "File: "This Store sells at FAIR PRICES as interpreted by U.S. Food Administration...", ca. 1917 – ca. 1919 – NARA – 512714.tif – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
- Jump up ^ "File: "We violated the regulations of the Food Administration but have pledged Full Obedience in the Future.", ca. 1917 – ca. – NARA – 512528.jpg – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
- Jump up ^ Paths to Democracy: Revolution and Totalitarianism By Rosemary H. T. O'Kane page 135
- Jump up ^ "File: "Cost of Living 1918–1944" – NARA – 514088.jpg – Wikimedia Commons". Retrieved 2012-01-21.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Sowell, Thomas (2001-01-11). "The Cause of the California Electricity Shortages: "Price Controls"". Capitalism Magazine. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
- Jump up ^ "Power problems". NewsHour with Jim Lehrer (PBS). 2001-01-04. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Power struggle". NewsHour with Jim Lehrer (PBS). 2001-06-20. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin, Mark (2002-05-10). "Memos show makings of power crisis". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Walter J. Wessels, Economics (2000), pp. 232–33.
- Jump up ^ Lactantius (ca. 300). "CHAP. VII.". On the Deaths of the Persecutors (Christian Classics Ethereal Library ed.). Calvin College.
- Jump up ^ Taylor and Van Doren, pages 26–28
- Jump up ^ Thomas Sowell, Applied Economics: Thinking Beyond Stage One (2008), pp. 7–9, 112–113, ISBN 0-465-00345-1
- Jump up ^ "Controls blamed for U.S. energy woes", Los Angeles Times, February 13, 1977, Milton Friedman press conference in Los Angeles.
- Jump up ^ "George P. Shultz (1972–1974)". Treasury.gov. 2010-11-20. Retrieved 2013-09-27.
Further reading[edit]
- Boudreaux, Donald (2008). "Price controls". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 389–90. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
External links[edit]
- Economic Amnesia: The Case against Price Controls by Jerry Taylor and Peter Van Doren
- The Theory of Price Controls by Stephanie Laguerodie and Francisco Vergara (from Review of Political Economy)
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